The
goal of the Buddhist path, complete and permanent liberation from suffering,
is to be achieved by practising the full threefold discipline of morality (sīla)
concentration (samādhi) and wisdom
(paññā). The mundane jhānas,
comprising the four fine-material jhānas and the four immaterial jhānas,
pertain to the stage of concentration, which they fulfil to an eminent degree.
However, taken by themselves, these states do not ensure complete deliverance,
for they are incapable of cutting off the roots of suffering. The Buddha
teaches that the cause of suffering, the driving power behind the cycle of
rebirths, is the defilements with their three unwholesome roots - greed,
hatred and delusion. Concentration of the absorption level, no matter to what
heights it is pursued, only suppresses the defilements, but cannot destroy
their latent seeds. Thence bare mundane jhāna, even when sustained, cannot by
itself terminate the cycle of rebirths. To the contrary, it may even
perpetuate the round. For if any fine-material or immaterial jhāna is held to
with clinging, it will bring about a rebirth in that particular plane of
existence corresponding to its own kammic potency, which can then be followed
by a rebirth in some lower realm.
What
is required to achieve complete deliverance from the cycle of rebirths is the
eradication of the defilements. Since the most basic defilement is ignorance (avijjā),
the key to liberation lies in developing its direct opposite, namely wisdom (paññā). Since wisdom presupposes a certain proficiency in
concentration it is inevitable that jhāna comes to claim a place in its
development. This place, however, is not fixed and invariable, but as we will
see allows for differences depending on the individual meditator’s
disposition.
Fundamental
to the discussion in this chapter is a distinction between two terms crucial
to Theravada philosophical exposition, „mundane“ (lokiya) and „supramundane“ (lokuttara).
The term „mundane“ applies to all phenomena comprised in the world (loka)
- to subtle states of consciousness as well as matter, to virtue as well as
evil, to meditative attainments as well as sensual engrossments. The term
„supramundane,“ in contrast, applies exclusively to that which transcends
the world, that is, the nine supramundane states: Nibbāna, the four noble
paths (magga) leading to Nibbāna, and their corresponding fruits (phala)
which experience the bliss of Nibbāna.
Wisdom
has the specific characteristic of penetrating the true nature of phenomena.
It penetrates the particular and general features of things through direct
cognition rather than discursive thought. Its function is „to abolish the
darkness of delusion which conceals the individual essences of states“ and
its manifestation is „non-delusion.“ Since the Buddha says that one whose
mind is concentrated knows and sees things as they are, the proximate cause of
wisdom is concentration (Vism.438; pp.481).
The
wisdom instrumental in attaining liberation is divided into two principal
types: insight knowledge (vipassanāñāna)
and the knowledge pertaining to the supramundane paths (maggañāna). The first is the direct penetration of the three
characteristics of conditioned phenomena - impermanence, suffering and
non-self.[1]
It takes as its objective sphere the five aggregates (pancakkhandhā) - material form, feeling, perception, mental
formations and consciousness. Because insight knowledge takes the world of
conditioned formations as its object, it is regarded as a mundane form of
wisdom. Insight knowledge does not itself directly eradicate the defilements,
but serves to prepare the way for the second type of wisdom, the wisdom of the
supramundane paths, which emerges when insight has been brought to its climax.
The wisdom of the path, occurring in four distinct stages (to be discussed
below), simultaneously realises Nibbāna, fathoms the Four Noble Truths, and
cuts off the defilements. This wisdom is called „supramundane“ because it
rises up from the world of the five aggregates to realise the state
transcendent to the world, Nibbāna.
The
Buddhist disciple, striving for deliverance, begins the development of wisdom
by first securely establishing its roots - purified moral discipline and
concentration. He then learns and masters the basic material upon which wisdom
is to work - the aggregates, elements, sense bases, dependent arising, the
Four Noble Truths, etc. He commences the actual practice of wisdom by
cultivating insight into the impermanence, suffering and non-self aspect of
the five aggregates. When this insight reaches its apex it issues in
supramundane wisdom, the right view factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, which
turns from conditioned formations to the unconditioned Nibbāna and thereby
eradicates the defilements.
The
Theravada tradition recognises two alternative approaches to the development
of wisdom, between which practitioners are free to choose according to their
aptitude and propensity. These two approaches are the vehicle of serenity (samathayāna)
and the vehicle of insight (vipassanāyāna).
The meditators who follow them are called, respectively, the samathayānika,
„one who makes serenity his vehicle,“ and the vipassanāyānika, „one who makes insight his vehicle.“ Since
both vehicles, despite their names, are approaches to developing insight, to
prevent misunderstanding the latter type of meditator is sometimes called a suddhavipassanāyānika,
„one who makes bare insight his vehicle,“ or a sukkhavipassaka,
„a dry-insight worker.“ Though all three terms appear initially in the
commentaries rather than in the suttas, the recognition of the two vehicles
seems implicit in a number of canonical passages.
The samathayānika
is a meditator who first attains access concentration or one of the eight
mundane jhānas, then emerges and uses his attainment as a basis for
cultivating insight until he arrives at the supramundane path. In contrast,
the vipassanāyānika does not
attain mundane jhāna prior to practising insight contemplation, or if he
does, does not use it as an instrument for cultivating insight. Instead,
without entering and emerging from jhāna, he proceeds directly to insight
contemplation on mental and material phenomena and by means of this bare
insight he reaches the noble path. For both kinds of meditator the experience
of the path in any of its four stages always occurs at a level of jhānic
intensity and thus necessarily includes supramundane jhāna under the heading
of right concentration (sammā samādhi),
the eighth factor of the Noble Eightfold Path.
The
classical source for the distinction between the two vehicles of serenity and
insight is the Visuddhi-Magga where it is explained that when a meditator
begins the development of wisdom „if, firstly, his vehicle is serenity, [he]
should emerge from any fine-material or immaterial jhāna except the base
consisting of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, and he should discern,
according to characteristic, function, etc. the jhāna factors consisting of
applied thought, etc. and the states associated with them“ (Vism.557;
PP.679-80). Other commentarial passages allow access concentration to suffice
for the vehicle of serenity, but the last immaterial jhāna is excluded
because its factors are too subtle to be discerned. The meditator whose
vehicle is pure insight, on the other hand, is advised to start directly by
discerning material and mental phenomena, beginning with the four elements,
without utilising a jhāna for this purpose (Vism.558; PP.680).Thus the samathayānika first attains access concentration or mundane jhāna
and then develops insight knowledge, by means of which he reaches the
supramundane path containing wisdom under the heading of right view and
supramundane jhāna under the heading of right concentration. The vipassanāyānika
in contrast, skips over mundane jhāna and goes directly into insight
contemplation. When he reaches the end of the progression of insight knowledge
he arrives at the supramundane path which, as in the previous case, brings
together wisdom with supramundane jhāna. This jhāna counts as his
accomplishment of serenity.
For a
meditator following the vehicle of serenity the attainment of jhāna fulfils
two functions: first, it produces a basis of mental purity and inner
collectedness needed for undertaking the work of insight contemplation; and
second, it serves as an object to be examined with insight in order to discern
the three characteristics of impermanence, suffering and non-self. Jhāna
accomplishes the first function by providing a powerful instrument for
overcoming the five hindrances. As we have seen, for wisdom to arise the mind
must first be concentrated well, and to be concentrated well it must be freed
from the hindrances, a task accomplished pre-eminently by the attainment of jhāna.
Though access concentration will keep the hindrances at bay, jhāna will
ensure that they are removed to a much safer distance.
In
their capacity for producing concentration the jhānas are called the basis (pāda)
for insight, and that particular jhāna a meditator enters and emerges from
before commencing his practice of insight is designated his pādakajjhāna,
the basic or foundational jhāna. Insight cannot be practised while absorbed
in jhāna, since insight meditation requires investigation and observation,
which are impossible when the mind is immersed in one-pointed absorption. But
after emerging from the jhāna the mind is cleared of the hindrances, and the
stillness and clarity that then result conduce to precise, penetrating
insight.
The jhānas
also enter into the samathayānika’s
practice in second capacity, that is, as objects for scrutinization by
insight. The practice of insight consists essentially in the examination of
mental and physical phenomena to discover their marks of impermanence,
suffering and non-self. The jhānas a meditator attains provide him with a
readily available and strikingly clear object in which to seek out the three
characteristics. After emerging from a jhāna the meditator will proceed to
examine the jhānic consciousness and to discern the way it exemplifies the
three universal marks. This process is called sammasanañāna.
„comprehension knowledge,“ and the jhāna subjected to such a treatment is
termed the sammasitajjhāna, „the
comprehended jhāna“ (Vism. 607-11; PP.706-10). Though the basic jhāna and
the comprehended jhāna will often be the same, the two do not necessarily
coincide. A meditator cannot practise comprehension on a jhāna higher than he
is capable of attaining, but one who uses a higher jhāna as his pādakajjhāna can still practise insight comprehension on a lower
jhāna which he has previously attained and mastered. This admitted difference
between the pādakajjhāna and the sammasitajjhāna
leads to discrepant theories about the supramundane concentration of the noble
path, as we will see.
Whereas
the sequence of training undertaken by the samathayānika
meditator is unproblematic, the vipassanāyānika’s
approach presents the difficulty of accounting for the concentration he uses
to provide a basis for insight. Concentration is needed in order to see and
know things as they are, but without access concentration or jhāna, what
concentration can he use? The solution to this problem is found in a type of
concentration distinct from the access and absorption concentrations
pertaining to the vehicle of serenity, called „momentary concentration“ (khanika
samādhi). Despite its name, momentary concentration does not signify a
single moment of concentration amidst a current of distracted thoughts, but a
dynamic concentration which flows from object to object in the ever-changing
flux of phenomena, retaining a constant degree of intensity and collectedness
sufficient to purify the mind of the hindrances. Momentary concentration
arises in the samathayānika simultaneously with his post-jhānic attainment of
insight, but for the vipassanāyānika
it develops naturally and spontaneously in the course of his insight practice
without his having to fix the mind upon a single exclusive object. Thus the
follower of the vehicle of insight does not omit concentration altogether from
his training, but develops it in a different manner from the practitioner of
serenity. Without gaining jhāna he goes directly into contemplation on the
five aggregates and by observing them constantly from moment to moment
acquires momentary concentration as an accompaniment of his investigations.
This momentary concentration fulfils the same function as the basic jhāna of
the serenity vehicle, providing the foundation of mental clarity needed for
insight to emerge.
The
climax in the development of insight is the attainment of the four
supramundane paths and fruits. Each path is a momentary peak experience
directly apprehending Nibbāna and permanently cutting off certain
defilements. These defilements are generally grouped into a set of ten
„fetters“ (samyojana) which keep beings chained to the round of rebirths. The
first path, called the path of stream-entry (sotāpatti) because it marks the entry into the stream of the
Dhamma, eradicates the first three fetters - the false view of self, doubt,
and clinging to rites and rituals. The disciple who has reached stream - entry
has limited his future births to a maximum of seven in the happy realms of the
human and heavenly worlds, after which he will attain final deliverance. But
an ardent disciple may progress to still higher stages in the same life in
which he reaches stream-entry, by making an aspiration for the next higher
path and again undertaking the development of insight with the aim of reaching
that path.
The
next supramundane path is that of the once-returner (sakadāgāmi). This path does not eradicate any fetters completely,
but it greatly attenuates sensual desire and ill will. The once-returner is so
called because he is bound to make an end of suffering after returning to this
world only one more time. The third path, that of the non-returner (anāgāmi)
utterly destroys the sensual desire and ill will weakened by the preceding
path. The non-returner is assured that he will never again take rebirth in the
sense sphere; if he does not penetrate higher he will be reborn spontaneously
in the Pure Abodes and there reach final Nibbāna. The highest path, the path
of Arahatship, eradicates the remaining five fetters - desire for existence in
the fine-material and immaterial spheres, conceit, restlessness and ignorance.
The Arahat has completed the development of the entire path taught by the
Buddha; he has reached the end of rebirths and can sound his „lion’s
roar“: „Destroyed is birth, the holy life has been lived, what was to be
done has been done, there is nothing further beyond this.“
Each
path is followed immediately by the supramundane experience of fruition, which
results from the path, comes in the same four graded stages, and shares the
path’s world-transcending character. But whereas the path performs the
active function of cutting off defilements, fruition simply enjoys the bliss
and peace that result when the path has completed its task. Also, where the
path is limited to a single moment of consciousness, the fruition that follows
immediately on the path endures for two or three moments. And while each of
the four paths occurs only once and can never be repeated, fruition remains
accessible to the noble disciple at the appropriate level. He can resort to it
as a special meditative state called fruition attainment (phalasamāpatti) for the purpose of experiencing nibbānic bliss
here and now (Vism.699-702; PP.819-24).
The
supramundane paths and fruits always arise as states of jhānic consciousness
They occur as states of jhāna because they contain within themselves the jhāna
factors elevated to an intensity corresponding to that of the jhāna factors
in the mundane jhānas. Since they possess the jhāna factors these states are
able to fix upon their object with the force of full absorption. Thence,
taking the absorptive force of the jhāna factors as the criterion, the paths
and fruits may be reckoned as belonging to either the first, second, third or
fourth jhāna of the fourfold scheme, or to the first, second, third, fourth
or fifth jhāna of the fivefold scheme.
The
basis for the recognition of a supramundane type of jhāna goes back to the
suttas, especially to the section of „The Great Discourse on the Foundations
of Mindfulness“ where the Buddha defines right concentration of the Noble
Eightfold Path by the standard formula for the four jhānas (D.ii,313).
However, it is in the Abhidhamma that the connection between the jhānas,
paths and fruits comes to be worked out with great intricacy of detail. The
Dhammasanganī, in its section on states of consciousness, expounds each of
the path and fruition states of consciousness as occasions, first, of one or
another of the four jhānas in the fourfold scheme, and then again as
occasions of one or another of the five jhānas in the fivefold scheme
(Dhs.74-86). Standard Abhidhammic exposition, as formalised in the synoptical
manuals of Abhidhamma, employs the fivefold scheme and brings each of the
paths and fruits into connection with each of the five jhānas. In this way
the eight types of supramundane consciousness - the path and fruition
consciousness of stream-entry, the once-returner, the non-returner and
arahatship-proliferate to forty types of supramundane consciousness, since any
path or fruit can occur at the level of any of the five jhānas. It should be
noted, however, that there are no paths and fruits conjoined with the
immaterial attainments, the reason being that supramundane jhāna is presented
solely from the standpoint of its factorial constitution, which for the
immaterial attainments and the fifth jhāna is identical - equanimity and
one-pointedness.
The
fullest treatment of the supramundane jhānas in the authoritative Pali
literature can be found in the Dhammasanganī read in conjunction with its
commentary, the Atthasālini. The Dhammasanganī opens its analysis of the
first wholesome supramundane consciousness with the words.
On
the occasion when one develops supramundane jhāna which is emancipating,
leading to the demolition (of existence), for the abandonment of views, for
reaching the first plane, secluded from sense pleasures … one enters and
dwells in the first jhāna. [Dhs.72]
The
Atthasālini explains the word lokuttara,
which we have, been translating „supramundane,“ as meaning „it crosses
over the world, it transcends the world, it stands having surmounted and
overcome the world.“ It glosses the phrase „one develops jhāna“ thus:
„One develops, produces, cultivates absorption jhāna lasting for a single
thought-moment.“ This gloss shows us two things about the consciousness of
the path: that it occurs as a jhāna at the level of full absorption and that
this absorption of the path lasts for only a single thought-moment. The word
„emancipating“ (niyyānika) is
explained to mean that this jhāna „goes out“ from the world, from the
round of existence, the phrase „leading to demolition“ (apacayagāmi)
that it demolishes and dismantles the process of rebirth (Dhs.A.259).
This
last phrase points to a striking difference between mundane and supramundane
jhāna. The Dhammasanganī’s exposition of the former begins: „On the
occasion when one develops the path for
rebirth in the fine-material sphere … one enters and dwells in the first
jhāna“ [my italics]. Thus, with this statement, mundane jhāna is shown to
sustain the round of rebirths; it is a wholesome kamma leading ta renewed
existence. But the supramundane jhāna of the path does not promote the
continuation of the round. To the contrary, it brings about the round’s
dismantling and demolition, as the Atthasālini shows with an illustrative
simile:
The
wholesome states of the three planes are said to lead to accumulation because
they build up and increase death and rebirth in the round. But not this. Just
as when one man has built up a wall eighteen feet high another might take a
club and go along demolishing it, so this goes along demolishing and
dismantling the deaths and rebirths built up by the wholesome kammas of the
three planes by bringing about a deficiency in their conditions. Thus it leads
to demolition.[2]
Supramundane
jhāna is said to be cultivated „for the abandoning of views.“ This phrase
points to the function of the first path, which is to eradicate the fetters.
The supramundane jhāna of the first path cuts off the fetter of personality
view and all speculative views derived from it. The Atthasālini points out
that here we should understand that it abandons not only wrong views but other
unwholesome states as well, namely, doubt, clinging to rites and rituals, and
greed, hatred and delusion strong enough to lead to the plane of misery. The
commentary explicates „for reaching the first plane“ as meaning for
attaining the fruit of stream-entry.
Besides
these, several other differences between mundane and supramundane jhāna may
be briefly noted. First, with regard to their object, the mundane jhānas have
as object a conceptual entity such as the counterpart sign of the kasinas or,
in the case of the divine abodes, sentient beings. In contrast, for the
supramundane jhāna of the paths and fruits the object is exclusively Nibbāna.
With regard to their predominant tone, in mundane jhāna the element of
serenity prevails, while the supramundane jhāna of the paths and fruits
brings serenity and insight into balance. Wisdom is present as right view and
serenity as right concentration, both functioning together in perfect harmony,
neither one exceeding the other.
This
difference in prevailing tone leads into a difference in function or activity
between the two kinds of jhāna. Both the mundane and supramundane are jhānas
in the sense of closely attending (upanijjhāna),
but in the case of mundane jhāna this close attention issues merely in
absorption into the object, an absorption that can only suppress the
defilements temporarily. In the supramundane jhāna, particularly of the four
paths, the coupling of close attention with wisdom brings the exercise of four
functions at a single moment. These four functions each apply to one of the
Four Noble Truths. The path penetrates the first noble truth by fully
understanding suffering; it penetrates the second noble truth by abandoning
craving, the origin of suffering; it penetrates the third noble truth by
realising Nibbāna, the cessation of suffering; and it penetrates the fourth
noble truth be developing the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the end of
suffering. Buddhaghosa illustrates this with the simile of a lamp, which also
performs four tasks simultaneously: it burns the wick, dispels darkness, makes
light appear, and consumes oil (Vism.690; PP.808).
When
the paths and fruits are assigned to the level of the four or five jhānas,
the question arises as to what factor determines their particular level of jhānic
intensity. In other words, why do the path and fruit arise for one meditator
at the level of the first jhāna, for another at the level of the second jhāna,
and so forth? The commentaries present three theories concerning the
determination of the jhānic level of the path, apparently deriving from the
lineages of ancient teachers (Vism.666-67; PP.778-80. Dhs.A.271-74). The first
holds that it is the basic jhāna, i.e. the jhāna used as a basis for the
insight leading to emergence in immediate proximity to the path, that governs
the difference in the jhānic level of the path. A second theory says that the
difference is governed by the aggregates made the objects of insight on the
occasion of insight leading to emergence. A third theory holds that it is the
personal inclination of the meditator that governs the difference.
According
to the first theory the path arisen in a dry-insight meditator who lacks jhāna,
and the path arisen in one who possesses a jhāna attainment but does not use
it as a basis for insight, and the path arisen by comprehending formations
after emerging from the first jhāna, are all paths of the first jhāna only.
When the path is produced after emerging from the second, third, fourth and
fifth jhānas (of the fivefold system) and using these as the basis for
insight, then the path pertains to the level of the jhāna used as a basis -
the second, third, fourth or fifth. For a meditator using an immaterial jhāna
as basis the path will be a fifth jhāna path. Thus in this first theory, when
formations are comprehended by insight after emerging from a basic jhāna,
then it is the jhāna attainment emerged from at the point nearest to the
path, i. e. just before insight leading to emergence is reached, that makes
the path similar in nature to itself.
According
to the second theory the path that arises is similar in nature to the states
which are being comprehended with insight at the time insight leading to
emergence occurs. Thus if the meditator, after emerging from a meditative
attainment, is comprehending with insight sense-sphere phenomena or the
constituents of the first jhāna, then the path produced will occur at the
level of the first jhāna. On this theory, then, it is the comprehended jhāna
(sammasitajjhāna) that determines the jhānic quality of the path.
The one qualification that must be added is that a meditator cannot
contemplate with insight a jhāna higher than he is capable of attaining.
According
to the third theory, the path occurs at the level of whichever jhāna the
meditator wishes - either at the level of the jhāna he has used as the basis
for insight or at the level of the jhāna he has made the object of insight
comprehension. In other words, the jhānic quality of the path accords with
his personal inclination. However, mere wish alone is not sufficient. For the
path to occur at the jhānic level wished for, the mundane jhāna must have
been either made the basis for insight or used as the object of insight
comprehension.
The
difference between the three theories can be understood through a simple
example.[3]
If a meditator reaches the supramundane path by contemplating with insight the
first jhāna after emerging from the fifth jhāna, then according to the first
theory his path will belong to the fifth jhāna, while according to the second
theory it will belong to the first jhāna. Thus these two theories are
incompatible when a difference obtains between basic jhāna and comprehended
jhāna. But according to the third theory, the path becomes of whichever jhāna
the meditator wishes, either the first or the fifth. Thus this doctrine does
not necessarily clash with the other two.
Buddhaghosa
himself does not make a decision among these three theories. He only points
out that in all three doctrines, beneath their disagreements, there is the
recognition that the insight immediately preceding the supramundane path
determines the jhānic character of the path. For this insight is the
proximate and principal cause for the arising of the path, so whether it be
the insight leading to emergence near the basic jhāna or that occurring
through the contemplated jhāna or that fixed by the meditator’s wish, it is
in all cases this final phase of insight that gives definition to the
supramundane path. Since the fruition that occurs immediately after the path
has an identical constitution to the path, its own supramundane jhāna is
determined by the path. Thus a first jhāna path produces a first jhāna
fruit, and so forth for the remaining jhānas.
[1]Anicca, dukkha anatā.
[2]Dhs.A 259. See Expositor. ii.289-90.
[3]Dhs.A.274. See Expositor, ii.310.