The Yonakas or Greeks? - Geographical and religious obstructions to the spread
of Dhamma - Pride of empire - the
first western Bhikkhus - difficulties of westerners in the Sangha - why become
a Bhikkhu (or upasikā) - not for
everyone - the Holy Life unnatural? - what causes a person to take up the Holy
Life? - faith or confidence - four types of people having faith - advice for
those who would like to go forth - the Sangha in western countries?
Possibly the first
people of western origin recorded to have entered the Sangha are some Bhikkhus
whose names have been recorded in the Great Chronicle (Mahavamsa) having also
the epithet ‘Yonaka’. This word is the Pali equivalent of Ionic, hence Greek.
But one may doubt how much Greek blood was in their veins as ‘yonaka’ was
applied to any citizen of the Greek type of city and such cities were found
from the Mediterranean to N.W. India. It is possible that a Buddhist centre
existed in Alexandria (Egypt) where Indian merchants were known to trade. This
would not have lasted through the fanatical Christianization programme
following the adoption of that religion by Constantine.
Between Egypt and India
lay at different times the various countries having Zoroastrianism as their
state religion. The powerful priesthood of this religion persecuted other
faiths from time to time so that Buddhism could not gain much ground in Persia
though numbers of Persians from central Asia became Bhikkhus. Prevented from
spreading westwards overland, Buddhism turned north through Central Asia and
then east to China and Japan.
Even if Buddhism had
reached the Mediterranean countries after Constantine’s fateful choice, it
could not have become established there since Dhamma cannot be planted or kept
going when opposed by brute force. The attitude of the churches, once they
gained power was to use compulsion forcing all to baptise or to suffer death,
with the destruction of all religious movements which ran counter to them.
Heterodoxies were rigorously suppressed and freedom of religion, which had
existed, to a very considerable extent in the Roman Empire, became a thing
unknown. Men’s minds were drilled to accept certain dogmas - of creation,
salvation, and so on, as true and unquestionable. Indeed, it became a sin to
question such doctrines in such a narrow and stifling religious climate, which
continued, aided by the fire and sword of secular power for 1,700 years or so,
the gentle but penetrating truth of the Dhamma had no chance.
It was only with the
decline of church power in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that there
was any possibility of eastern thought reaching westwards. By then however, a
new obstacle arose in many western minds: pride of empire. People who have
empires always look down upon those they conquer but this attitude ensures
that nothing can be learnt by the conquerors from the subject population. It
is assumed that power to conquer means natural superiority in every respect,
such conceit shutting the door against knowledge, which could otherwise be
absorbed. But western nations not only felt their weapons superior and
therefore their religion too, they also saw themselves as light-bringers to
the darkness of backward peoples. Their industries and mass-made products were
soon to bring about a Golden Age of peace and prosperity and the ignorant
natives of Asia had to play their part too, as cheap labour. Such attitudes as
these guaranteed a lack of interest, even a derision of Asian culture. And
Buddhism was the religion of the conquered, so what could be learnt from it?
Of course there are a
few wise men that are interested both in the Pali manuscripts on ola palm
leaves from Sri Lanka and Burma, and in other Buddhist Sanskrit writings found
in Nepal. Thus a comparison became possible for scholars between the earlier
and simpler Pali accounts and the later more embroidered versions found in
Sanskrit.
One of the first to
spread a knowledge of the Buddha’s teachings outside the circle of scholars
and their journals was Schopenhauer.[1]
It is quite possible that the first westerner known to have became a Bhikkhu,
an Austrian whose name could not be traced, had read of the Buddha’s teachings
by of the German philosopher. At the time of his ordination, c. 1870 he was
employed by the Siamese government. He temporarily ordained as a Bhikkhu at
Wat Pichaiyat in Thonburi, during the reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama Vth).
Siam was never conquered
by any colonial power, so his ordination ceremony was no doubt regarded with
favour in the government circles. But in Sri Lanka and Burma (as in Cambodia
and Laos) the idea of westerners ‘going native’ to such an extent as to ordain
was looked upon with horror.
Things have now changed
a great deal. No longer do western and semi-Christian countries have empires
in the east, so pride of empire has had to be relinquished. And again, many
people now have second thoughts about industrialisation and its benefits. They
are very doubtful whether the Golden Age will dawn through fast factories,
mass-produced articles and the pollution, which is involved. So now a great
many young people turn to look at the eastern cultures and see what they have
to offer to their hearts and minds starved of spiritual teachings.
That people are able to
go now to Buddhist countries and find there some institutions which have
relevance to their needs is due to the pioneers who from the beginning of this
century were courageous and sought Acceptance in the Sangha. We shall not
attempt here to give outlines of many of these pioneers, only three of the
most famous being mentioned, two British and one German.
In order of ordination
Allan Bennet was the first (though not the first Englishman in robes). His
interest in Dhamma was awakened by reading „The Light of Asia“, Sir Edwin
Arnold’s famous poem on the Buddha. So moved was he by this that he went to
Sri Lanka in 1901 where he became a samanera with the name Ananda Metteyya.
The next year he went to Burma where it appears he was accepted as a Bhikkhu.
While studying and practising in Burma he founded „Buddhism“, an illustrated
magazine of very high standard, which could hardly be matched in the Buddhist
world today. In this organ, which had a worldwide circulation, plans were
published for a Buddhist Mission to the West partly financed by generous
Burmese lay-supporters, partly by the newly established Buddhist Society of
Great Britain and Ireland. Bhikkhu Ananda Metteyya arrived in Britain in April
1908 and began his work propagating the Dhamma. He experienced great
difficulties as at that time Buddhism, even as a word was hardly known to many
people. Progress of the mission was not so rapid as had been expected. In the
autumn of the same year, he returned to Rangoon and stayed there until 1914,
but the Bhikkhu’s health deteriorated due to severe asthma, so he disrobed,
returned to Britain and led a more retired life until 1923, the year of his
death from that disease. His dying wish was to give his last few pence to a
beggar he heard passing beneath his window. He was the author of „The Wisdom
of the Aryas“ and „An Outline of Buddhism“, besides many articles on the
Dhamma.
Next came Anton Gueth
who was a Bhikkhu for no less than 53 Rains with the name of Nyanatiloka. He
met with Buddhism in Germany and from there made his way to Sri Lanka, though
it was in Burma where he became a samanera in 1903 and a Bhikkhu in 1904. Then
he returned to Sri Lanka where he established a hermitage upon an island in
the midst of a lagoon near to the south coast of the country. He lived an
ascetic life quite unafraid of the many snakes that were his neighbours. The
villagers nearby took him alms food by boat every day, erected a kuti for him
and treated him with great respect. Gradually he became known more widely,
specially as westerners came to join the Sangha and took up residence under
his guidance.
A number of his western
pupils have spent all their lives in the Sangha as he did, such as the
venerable Vappa Mahathera and Nyanasatta Mahathera. Venerable Nyanaponika
Mahathera also is well known as a translator, author and founder of the
Buddhist Publication Society in Kandy, while the late Nyanamoli Thera’s name
will live upon the many books he translated from Pali.
Venerable Nyanatiloka
Mahathera was a great scholar who wrote and translated very many books, both
in English and German.[2]
He also contributed to the Sixth Buddhist Council held in Burma. Such was his
eminence that the Government of Ceylon made him a distinguished citizen in
1950. After his death in 1957 the government accorded him the honour of a
State funeral. His last wish was to be reborn in Sri Lanka and to become a
Bhikkhu again.
Last to be mentioned
hero is J. F. McKechnie whose Bhikkhu name was Sīlacāra. His first contact
with the Dhamma was through a copy of „Buddhism“, the magazine produced in
Burma. This interested him so much that he went to Burma in 1906 and there
became a Bhikkhu. He studied Pali and helped to produce the magazine, later
writing a number of books himself and translating some more from Buddhist
works in German. He was the translator also of the first hundred of the
Buddha’s Middle Length Discourses in two volumes, which he condensed and tried
to put into easily understood English. He disrobed as a result of poor health
and returned to England in 1925 to help there with „The British Buddhist“, the
magazine of the British Maha Bodhi Society. His death took place in Bury,
Lancashire in 1951.
.
Westerners entering the
Sangha have still to face a number of difficulties in Buddhist countries. If
their confidence in the Triple Gem is not strong enough these difficulties
will soon find their weaknesses. Among them are such things as differences of
climate; a trouble, which can only be overcome by patience, and of food, where
contentment with what one gets, is needed. Another unwanted experience is that
of the tropical diseases which afflict some aspirants. On such trouble as
these the Buddha’s Discourse on All the Troubles may be consulted in the
Appendix. Language is another problem and it is essential to master the tongue
spoken by one’s Teachers as soon as possible. Other changes affect some people
who cannot adapt to the religious and cultural environments of the Buddhist
people to whom they go to learn. It is one thing to read a few Buddhist books,
often not the words of the Buddha but various ideas of modern authors, but it
is another to be in Buddhist surroundings and to have to discipline oneself
accordingly. Nuns will have to face more difficulties, which have been
outlined in the last chapter.
One difference between
many eastern Buddhists and westerners, which can be a cause of difficulty, is
the way that they approach Dhamma. For the Buddhist born in a Buddhist
environment and brought up in this, Buddhism is largely coloured with many
traditional practices, ceremonies and festivals. Many Buddhists do not ask
questions (although this changes as a more western-educated youth grows up)
and are inclined to accept the words of Teachers as true. This is not to say
that everyone is undiscriminating but rather that faith outweighs wisdom in
many cases. Such an attitude is found among Bhikkhus too though it may be less
common in the Sangha. The westerner, by contrast, has no traditional Buddhist
background but often discovers the Dhamma as the result of a personal search.
He wants to know ‘why’? Westerners who enter the Sangha have sometimes a too
critical attitude, which is founded on superiority-conceit. It is right to
inquire but this should be done with humility and at the right time. Both
total scepsis and blind faith are extremes, the one leading quickly out of the
robes and out of Buddhism; the other leading one knows not where. To overcome
these difficulties, confidence should be developed by the sceptical questioner
and wisdom by the traditional follower.
The question my be
asked: ‘Well, why become a Bhikkhu (or an upāsikā)?’ The argument runs like
this - ’If it is so difficult and there is the possibility of ruining one’s
health, well just stay here at home and practise Dhamma’. This has to be the
course of action for those who are tied down to worldly responsibilities of
family and so on. But if one is free of these burdens then learning the Dhamma
‘at home’, even if there happens to be a small Buddhist centre nearby, is only
a very second-best. In western countries usually one can go to only one
Teacher and so misses the great variety of Teachers and their Teachings found
in the East. But it is more likely that no Bhikkhus are found near home and
one’s practice must be based upon books and intelligent guesswork, which is no
substitute for a Teacher’s presence. Where there is a Buddhist Society this
can be helpful, depending on who runs it and what their understanding of
Dhamma is like but it is not uncommon for unguided Buddhist groups to be more
a source of confusion than enlightenment! Again, round about most westerners
there is a culture, materialistic and based on defilements, opposed to
Buddhist aims, which are then made more difficult to realise. (This is not to
say that Buddhist Countries are paradise where Enlightenment will fall into
one’s lap!) But by learning thoroughly the language of the country one goes to
and by living with Teachers and talking to them, appreciation of Dhamma is
broadened and deepened in a way that cannot come about if one is a
stay-at-home. The west has hardly any really great Teachers in Buddhist
tradition and for the guidance of Enlightened minds one has still to travel to
the East. The effort and sacrifice may be great but the results can be greater
still, depending on one’s own reaction to the presence of Teachers. The best
results are never attained without effort. Of course, it all depends how far
one wishes to go but generally it is true to say that little effort towards
training oneself means little result. And training, oneself alone has a severe
limitation: there is no one to tell one how to deal with defilements, or to
point out the blind spots in one’s conduct. Teachers, when one has humility,
have compassion for one and guide one through the tangles of inner defilement
and outer misbehaviour. So there is certainly some reason for seeking them out
rather than going it alone.
If one finds a Teacher
who has good Dhamma then one thing is necessary so that the Dhamma can enter
one’s own heart: stay with him long, years will be better than months!
Then of course, for the
easiest practise of Dhamma, ordaining as a Bhikkhu or a nun is the best thing
to do. Laypeople have to fight on two fronts - the material, to keep
themselves alive and the spiritual, against the defilements invading the mind.
Those who have robes on, being supported by faithful laypeople, have only to
fight the defilements. They have all their days and nights to do this. And
they are protected by their Vinaya against situations, which make Dhamma
practice difficult or impossible.
The life of a Bhikkhu or
upāsikā is of course not for everyone (An old chestnut is the question, ‘But
what would happen if everyone became monks and nuns?’ - as if this is ever a
possibility!) Many people in the Buddha-time and since then have even attained
the Paths and Fruits by steady practice while leading the household life. Does
this not contradict what was said above about renunciation? No, because those
who can practise to levels of attainment as householders must have made much
good kamma in the past. They have striven already, even if they do not
remember doing so, but the numbers of such people are few. It is more common
to be impeded by household life when on a spiritual path, than helped by it.
Of course, one should never assume that one is a person of great merits who
does not need to give up anything - for this would look rather like a conceit!
Other people say that
the chaste life is unnatural, using analogies such as, ‘We have eyes so we are
meant to see - and all the other organs including those of sex, so who are
meant to use them’. This kind of statement suffers from an assumption: that
someone means us to act in some way rather than another. This is assuming the
existence of a God and a plan that he has for the world. Buddhism shows that
such assumptions are founded upon a misinterpretation of the evidence. There
is no Creator and so no plan.[3]
There are other objections too, which come out more strongly when people say,
‘I have a stomach and so I eat, lungs and so I breathe, sex organs and so I
have intercourse’. But here of course, eating and breathing are necessary for
the life of the body while sex certainly is not. Further, breathing is an
automatic function and in no way connected with greed, while eating is not
automatic and often involving kamma linked to greed, but sex is also a
deliberate action (=kamma) and always rooted in greed (= lust, desire). Kamma
rooted in lust or desire is not good kamma and its fruits are to strengthen
craving for existence, for more life - and more death. So if one wants to make
great efforts at Dhamma-practice in this existence the Holy Life is the most
‘natural’ one to adopt. It favours becoming rid of defilements; it is near to
or goes naturally towards renunciation and to Nibbāna.
What are the factors,
which cause people to take up the Holy Life in the Buddha’s teachings? The
prime causes are two, one of which is experienced by all living beings while
the other is only strong in some of them. The first of these experienced by
all is dukkha,[4]
unsatisfactoriness, pain, anguish, all kinds of unwanted mental and physical
experiences whether gross or subtle. But not everyone has the second causal
factor-wisdom (paññā), the understanding of how
dukkha arises, of what conditions its existence. When a wise person
reads the Four Noble Truth - (1) Dukkha
(its existence), (2) Causal Arising (by way of craving - ignorance), (3)
Cessation (by removal of craving = Nibbāna), (4) the Path to this cessation
(the Noble Eightfold Path), they realise that much of their
dukkha is made by themselves and if
they change their course in life, they can find peace and happiness. So
dukkha impels people with wisdom (paññā)
to practice Dhamma.
If people have not seen
much dukkha in this life, or they
have seen it but not known that anything could be done about it, they are
unlikely to be interested in the Buddha’s teachings.
Dukkha, the Buddha, said, should be
thoroughly known. This means that one should know it as such whenever it
occurs, and as it is of various forms gross and subtle, not all of it will be
obvious from the beginning. The subtle
dukkha, of reliance upon this impermanent world (including mind-body) for
instance, is only thoroughly known in the higher levels of insight meditation.
This Buddhist teaching contrasts with the attitude of most people to
dukkha - to try to ignore it constantly.
When people have
dukkha - everyone has but it is
being really piled up in the west now - and wisdom too that appreciates the
Noble Truths, then confidence (saddhā)
is born. Confidence means trust in the Buddha who has discovered the way out
of dukkhas through his
Enlightenment; in Dhamma as that Way which leads out of
dukkha towards Nibbāna; and in the
Sangha of Noble One who by following the Way have got rid of the causes of
dukkha in themselves and reached to
Enlightenment. These three factors then,
dukkha, wisdom and confidence are the prime causes for westerners
ordaining.
A Pali Commentary lists
four types of people who have confidence. (I do not use the word ‘faith’ as in
Buddhist contexts real saddhā is
always allied to wisdom or understanding -
paññā. Only the fourth type possesses true
saddhā as we shall see.
The first type of person
gains faith through seeing something magnificent or beautiful. Such a person
is said to ‘measure by seeing’. What they see may be a religious procession
full of colour and pageantry, priests robed gorgeously, mighty cathedrals - or
of course, great Buddha-images covered with gold. They are impressed by what
they see.
In the second case, it
is not seeing but hearing which is the basis for the arising of faith. People
hear divine singing, or chanting, without knowing its meaning, or they recite
a mantra, usually a meaningless word or collection of words, in the company of
others, becoming, carried away by the sound in any case. Their faith is
established in this way.
The third group of
people gain faith through appreciation of rough, coarse or common things. They
‘measure by coarseness’. What does this mean? This means gaining faith through
seeing an ascetic or monk who uses such things. It is based on the thought ‘I
love and use beautiful things but this ascetic is content with coarse things.
Therefore he must be holy’. In an Indian setting it applies to admiration and
confidence on seeing a dusty, bearded ascetic with patched robes, or none at
all. In Buddhist countries it is also found as when town-dwelling laypeople
admire a forest-dwelling Bhikkhu with his dull-coloured robes and other
evidence of asceticism.
It is rather obvious
that none of these criteria are really safe for the development of confidence.
One can see or hear things, which will lead one’s understanding astray. What
use is a religion, which encourages one’s faith with gorgeous ritual and
divine music but approves of persecution and power politics? One may be
equally mistaken with the signs of coarseness in an ascetic’s articles.
Perhaps he is a hypocrite displaying such marks to win admiration or he may be
just a dullard who does not care that his things are rough. All three fail
through lack of wisdom, of that understanding, which, in this case, arises
after thinking in terms of cause and effect.
So the fourth sort of
person has faith, or better call it confidence, because he has used his
wisdom. When he encounters religious splendours of eye and ear he is not taken
in by them, such things he knows are all conditioned and imply no standard for
truth. And he is not deceived by plainness or coarseness but asks why - is it
for show or is it because of contentment and lack of desire for beautiful
things. He ‘measures by wisdom’ and uses his mind to test and ask questions.
And he is not satisfied with a teaching if he is told that such questions
should not be asked, or that they have no answers, which we can understand. He
believes only after repeated questioning, not being satisfied until his
questions are answered with complete clarity. His understanding of the
conditional arising and passing away of all things not only satisfies the
intellect but is supported by practice of the Dhamma, particularly meditation.
He is not satisfied if assumptions are presented to him for his belief, such
assumptions as a Creator or an eternal soul, because such concepts can never
be incontrovertibly demonstrated and do not agree with either sense-experience
or with the evidence of meditation when investigated in the light of the Three
Characteristics[5]
- Impermanence, dukkha and non-self,
of all living beings. Such a person does not have to keep his faith apart from
the conditionality which rules in the empirical world, indeed his wisdom (paññā)
derived from observing conditionality, supports his faith in the Triple Gem;
while that faith balances his wisdom so that the latter is not just
intellectual knowledge. This type of person will be a good Buddhist since both
intellectually pleased with the clarity of Dhamma and emotionally satisfied
with the good results, which come from practice.
A person like this may
want to take up the Dhamma, full-time, to give mind and body to the study and
practice of the Dhamma. What should such a person do? What follows is the
text, in revised form, of a little booklet published in Bangkok[6]
for the information of people writing to find out about ordination and what is
entailed by this step.
1.
Become a Buddhist
2.
Understand clearly: Why do I wish to go forth to homelessness?
3.
Consider: Can I lead the Holy Life honourably?
4.
Question oneself: Am I free from obstacles to ordination?
5.
Decide: How shall I use my time when I have gone forth?
6.
Practical needs for an applicant.
7.
Necessary virtues in an applicant,
8.
the Aim of the Holy Life.
One may think it
unnecessary to start with this point as one might assume that everyone who
wished to go forth was a Buddhist already. However, this is not always the
case and there have been some people who though not really Buddhists but
holding to their own views, still wish to be ordained. So what is a Buddhist?
A Buddhist is one whose ideals are embodied in the Triple Gem, the most
precious things in this world:
The Buddha as the Enlightened Teacher.
The Dhamma as the Path of practice leading to Enlightenment.
The Sangha as those who have attained Enlightenment by practising that
Path.
To these Gems or
Treasures a Buddhist goes for Refuge finding is them an incomparable security
from the limitless variety of dukkha,
which can be experienced in the world. From the manifold sufferings and
fearfulness of the world with its cycle of birth, decay, disease and death,
its instability and insecurity, a Buddhist goes for Refuge to Buddha, Dhamma
and Sangha which are all aspects of Enlightenment and ultimately, through
practice, to be found in his own heart. Without a good understanding of what
the Triple Gem is, at first gained by study, no one can go for Refuge
sincerely. And without this faith grounded on understanding, practice of the
Dhamma is not possible nor will one possess one need to sustain one in the
homeless life. One should be able to say, without any reservation of one’s own
views, theistic, pan-religious, or whatever they may have been - throwing them
all away: „To the Buddha I go for refuge. To the Dhamma I go for refuge. To
the Sangha I go for refuge“.
Having become a Buddhist
one should then ask oneself this question to understand clearly whether one’s
motives for desiring ordination are correct or not. Some wrong reasons for
this include such aims as: wishing to learn magic or gain supernormal powers,
wanting a life of idleness or wanting to escape from personal difficulties or
family responsibilities which should not be evaded, desiring fame or craving
to become a Teacher after only a few months of ordination, desiring the
respect shown by laypeople to those following the Holy Life, and so on. Right
motivation includes: wishing to lead the Holy (chaste) Life as a way to go
beyond the unsatisfactory world, seeing that such a life is free from worldly
cares and gives one the chance to practise Dhamma fully devoting all one’s
time to the Triple Gem. Wrong reasons are based on the mental defilements of
greed, pride, fear and so on, while the correct reasons arise from excellent
qualities such as renunciation, wisdom, devotion and humility. The homeless
life requires learning and steady practice for many years under the guidance
of good Dhamma-teachers. Only when one has attained great practical experience
of the Dhamma will it be the time to teach others.
When one knows that the
reasons for undertaking the homeless life are straightforward then one should
ask a further question about one’s abilities to keep to the Discipline
(Vinaya). Whatever code of rules one undertakes (Bhikkhus have 227, nuns 8 or
10), one should be able to keep them pure. These rules are to help one
practise the Dhamma, a fact which can be understood from the name of those
rules collectively: the Vinaya, meaning that which leads out of worldly
sufferings towards peace of mind and purity of heart. Therefore one has the
right attitude when one determines to keep all the training-rules carefully,
not dropping those, which impede one’s, own comfort and convenience. From such
effort to keep all the training-rules pure one becomes very careful of all
nations of mind, speech and body. This awareness or mindfulness is the
keystone in the arch of Buddhist training and unless it is developed in the
homeless life one will give up the quest for Dhamma. The person with the right
attitude understands the value of this awareness and is diligent in practice
of the training-rules but does not expect to be free from all faults and
failings, Whenever one falls into offences against those rules, then they
should be confessed promptly so that the heart having been opened in this way,
there is no burden of guilt but the restoration of purity. After ordination
one wears robes which are symbols of striving in the Holy Life and devotion to
the Triple Gem. The good person determines to be worthy of them.
There are five obstacles
to ordination as a Bhikkhu: That person is not a male, is not yet 20 years old
(from conception), lacks organs or limbs so that he is not a complete man, has
committed very serious crimes such as murder or has committed the most serious
offences against the Vinaya, such as the four defeating offences when
previously ordained as a Bhikkhu. Also one has been a Bhikkhu in the past but
held wrong views and gone over to and got ordination in another religion. With
any of those five obstacles Bhikkhu ordination is not possible. Further,
during the ceremony of Acceptance (ordination as a Bhikkhu) the aspirant will
be asked those questions[7]:
„Are you afflicted with diseases like these - leprosy, boils, eczema,
consumption, epilepsy? Are you a human being? … a man? … a free man? Are you
without debt? Are you exempt from government service? Have you the permission
of your parents? Are you fully 20 years old? (Under this age one may be
ordained as a samanera or novice). Are your robes and bowl complete?“ (This is
arranged by supporters at the temple where the ordination will take place). To
the questions about diseases he must be able to reply truthfully, „No,
venerable sir“. To all the others with truth he must reply, „Yes, venerable
sir“. If these questions cannot be answered in this way then he is not free
from obstacles to ordination. The man who is free from them can be ordained a
Bhikkhu. In the case of a woman who wants to become an upāsikā or nun, she is
required to have shaved her head, put on the nun’s robes and be able to keep
the Eight (or Ten) Precepts, the taking of which constitute her ordination.
She will also require the necessary support for her life as upāsikā (see 6).
A Bhikkhu is supported
by the offerings of faithful laypeople and does not work for money. He is able
therefore, to give all his time to the Dhamma, learning and practising it so
that he is worthy of lay support, not idling or wasting his time. To spend a
fruitful life in the Sangha one must have good ‘roots’ in the Dhamma. When the
roots are weak the tree is easily blown down, such a Bhikkhu quickly disrobes
and returns to lay life. The roots that one must have are either in the path
of book-study and the practice of the Vinaya in the town vihāras, or in the
path of meditation in forest vihāras where strict discipline, the austere
practices and meditation are the basis of life. Which way one takes depends
upon one’s characters. In the first he must be able, very largely, to plan his
own studies though there are some classes now for non-Thai Bhikkhus. However,
knowledge of Thai[8]
is indispensable for easy communication with Teachers. Along with this
language, Pali should be learnt if one wishes to know the Buddha’s words in
his original tongue. Although there are many translations of the Buddha-word
in English, older renderings are often unreliable and misleading. There is
plenty of room for improved translations of the Buddha’s words. If one’s aim
is meditation, only knowledge of Thai, and Pali technical terms used in the
Dhamma, will be needed. A Bhikkhu will certainly get help from his Teachers
but this will still leave him with a great deal of time to fill. There is no
rigid timetable that one has to follow so that self-discipline is very
important. The few fixed events in a Bhikkhu’s day are alms round, one meal or
two finished by noon, chanting in Pali in the temple once or twice a day,
sweeping and cleaning, with perhaps a class or Dhamma-talk from the Teacher in
the afternoon or evening. As it is rare to get the chance for ordination a man
or woman who is so fortunate to be free from all obstacles should use the time
for study or practice diligently and to the greatest advantage.
Obviously an applicant
for ordination must have the means to get to the country and the vihāra where
ordination will take place. But he or she must also have enough money to pay
for a return ticket in case, before or after ordination, one decides not to
continue in the homeless life. It will be a great advantage to have contacted
the venerable abbot of a vihāra before arriving so that he may have some idea
about oneself and the advisability or otherwise of going-forth. Addresses may
be had from the World Fellowship of Buddhists, Headquarters, 33 Sukhumvit
Road, Bangkok 11, Thailand, or from the Buddhist Publication Society, P.O. Box
61, Kandy, Sri Lanka. When contact has been made, a brief biography of oneself
with details of education and a recent photograph are usually appreciated. On
arrival at the vihāra one should be prepared to stay there as a lay person
(keeping the Eight Precepts) for a month or so while Teachers observe one’s
conduct. If it is decided that the ordination should go ahead then during this
time the Pali ordination procedure should also be learnt. A man will require
at least enough money to support himself for this period, buying perhaps his
two meals, toilet requisites, and providing for any travelling that he may
undertake to other vihāras. A woman, unless she has a definite supporter, will
require just enough to keep herself in food and other necessities while she is
in robes, at least for the first few years. She will probably get support
after that when she has shown her firm intention to continue in the Holy Life.
During this preliminary period one should wear clothes which are easily
washable and in good repair. White is a colour favoured in Buddhist tradition
for women wishing to go forth, while bright colours are inappropriate.
Success in the Holy Life
is possible when a person has, or makes efforts to develop certain good
qualities. Faith in the Triple Gem has already been mentioned but though an
applicant has this, yet if he or she is given to harshness, not much can be
expected. So loving kindness in deeds and words is very important. A Buddhist
is gentle and concerned not to harm other living beings; especially this is
the mark of one in robes. Along with gentleness must go humility, that
mildness of character, which welcomes instruction. If one supposes that one
knows it all, which is just pride and conceit, and then one does not want to
be told what to do or how it should be done. Humility opens the mind’s door to
knowledge, while conceit slams it shut. With humility, patience is necessary
too. It is not likely that the aims of the Holy Life can be quickly achieved
and patience is necessary for that. The mind has been defiled for a long time
and it must take some while to cleanse and purify it. Though the ancient
accounts of the Buddha’s discourses speak of people becoming Arahants
(Enlightened) in „no long time“ one should remember that commentaries tell us
that this sometimes meant as long as twelve years. Patience too is needed to
deal with various obstacles, which may break the smooth course of the Holy
Life. The Buddha has praised this quality most highly. Persevering effort
should go along with patience. It is not enough to be patient, effort also is
needed, a steady effort, not one of erratic leaps with indifference
in-between. Effort is needed to cultivate all aspects of the Buddha’s way in
oneself, to change oneself from the ordinary ways of the world to act
according to Dhamma, in mind, speech and body. These virtues are opposed to
the defilements and while the latter mean only lead to more sufferings, the
former are the basis for steady growth in the Dhamma.
This may be divided into
one’s immediate aims and the ultimate aim. The immediate aims, which are in
accordance with Dhamma, include becoming a better-disciplined person with the
Vinaya as one’s support, or gaining more knowledge of the Buddha’s teachings
through study of the Dhamma. To remove the troubles and difficulties in one’s
character can be also an aim, which will be realised as one progresses in the
attainment of Nibbāna, the Ultimate aim. The Buddha frequently urged those who
had gone forth not to rest content with the lower aims but with energy to
press on to the attainment of higher goals, until Nibbāna was reached. That
this is the ultimate aim should not be forgotten while one is in training, or
after that, though the world of the senses makes it easy to do so. Although
there is a fast express line direct to Nibbāna, it is easier to get shunted of
this to some quiet siding where effort is no longer needed! The effort needed
to conquer sloth and other dull mental states and the restraint necessary to
guard one’s actions from the defilements, bring happiness to those who lead
the Holy Life, as the Buddha has said:
(Dhp. 379)
This is the end of the
small booklet from Thailand and nearly the end of our book upon the Sangha.
One thing remains to be said: While the Sangha flourishes the Buddha’s
teachings will spread for the happiness and benefit of mankind. But if the
Sangha should not survive, either in the prisons of communism or in the
madhouses of western materialism, then the disappearance of Buddhism will
shortly follow. The position of the Sangha in the Theravada Buddhist countries
of Asia is unsure. Already Cambodia and Laos have communist governments and
communism, a product of western intolerance, has not so far shown much favour
to any kind of religious order. The future, then, in Asia is uncertain. It is
also uncertain whether Theravada will put down viable roots in the various
western countries in which it now has small centres. If it is to do so this
will largely depend upon western Bhikkhus and nuns from those countries. This
is not to say that the efforts of venerable Bhikkhus from Asia are
unappreciated because they have been the pioneers in establishing the vihāras
that exist now in western countries. But they do have difficulties with both
language and cultural background, which are very different in their countries
to conditions in western lands.
As my revered Teacher,
venerable Somdet Phra Nyanasangvorn, Lord Abbot of Wat Bovoranives Vihāra in
Bangkok, has said in a letter concerning the recently established Buddhist
vihāra, Wat Buddharangsee, in Sydney, “According to my opinion to construct a
temple is much easier than to form a native Sangha in that temple, doing their
proper work, stable and well established. In the West in general and Australia
particularly, we must try to form the Sangha from among the people native to
those countries and there should be Bhikkhus from those countries who spend
all their lives in the Sangha. There is no need for a great number of such
‘long-as-life-lasts’ Bhikkhus for too many may be a cause of criticism from
the majority of people“. If the Dhamma is practised well the venerable
Somdet’s vision will be realised. As he ends his letter-
[1]See “Schopenhauer and Buddhism“, ‘Wheel’ 144-146 B.P.S.
[2]See the list of his works in the back of his invaluable „The Word of the Buddha“, an aathology on the Four Noble Truths, B.P.S. Kandy.
[3]See, „Buddhism and the God-idea“ Wheel 47, B.P.S. For those who want something more substantial there is, „A Buddhist Critique of the Christian Connception of God“, by Gunapala Dharmasiri, Lakehouse Publications.
[4]See, „The Three Basic Facts of Existence - II - Sufferingg“, Wheel 191-193, B.P.S.
[5]See, „The Basic Facts of Existenc“, B.P.S.
[6]„Brief Advice to those wishing to Go Forth from home to homelessness“ (by the present writer), Mahamakut Press.
[7]See, Appendix II.
[8](Or the language of whatever country one goes to for training).